The rise of populist extremism in Europe: Theoretical tools for comparison

Abstract

CoHERE explores the ways in which identities in Europe are constructed through heritage representations and performances that connect to ideas of place, history, tradition and belonging. The research identifies existing heritage practices and discourses in Europe. It also identifies means to sustain and transmit European heritages that are likely to contribute to the evolution of inclusive, communitarian identities and counteract disaffection with, and division within, the EU. A number of modes of representation and performance are explored in the project, from cultural policy, museum display, heritage interpretation, school curricula and political discourse to music and dance performances, food and cuisine, rituals and protest. WP2 investigates public/popular discourses and dominant understandings of a homogeneous ‘European heritage’ and the ways in which they are mobilized by specific political actors to advance their agendas and to exclude groups such as minorities from a stronger inclusion into European society. What notions of European heritage circulate broadly in the public sphere and in political discourse? How do the ‘politics of fear’ relate to such notions of European heritage and identity across and beyond Europe and the EU? How is the notion of a European heritage and memory used not only to include and connect Europeans but also to exclude some of them? We are interested in looking into the relationship between a European memory and heritage-making and circulating notions of ‘race’, ethnicity, religion and civilization as well as contemporary forms of discrimination grounded in the idea of incommensurable cultural and memory differences. This essay concentrates on the theoretical review of the current state of populism in Europe, which has been an important subject of study since the 1960s. The essay starts with a discussion on the definition of populism referring to the works of different scholars since the 1960s. Subsequently, it elaborates the features of contemporary populism, which has become very widespread in the last decade in a Europe hit by financial and refugee crises. Thirdly, the essay discusses the correlation between the ‘end of ideology’ discussions of the 1960s and the rise of populist political discourses along with neo-liberal forms of governance. The essay concludes with a brief discussion on the levels of analysis in the inquiry of populism to find out what is more relevant to consider: the leader, or the party?