Understanding the Water Footprint in the Construction Industry

Abstract

The construction industry is among the most resource-intensive sectors. Poorly designed buildings exacerbate water inefficiencies over their operational lifetimes. The total water footprint of building construction can vary, depending on the project’s scale and the materials. For instance, the water footprint for a standard 2000 m2 residential building is estimated at approximately 24 million liters, encompassing both direct and embedded water use. The embedded water footprint represents a critical dimension of sustainability in construction. This component has profound implications for resource management, particularly in regions experiencing water scarcity. Addressing the embedded water footprint is essential for promoting sustainable practices within the industry. Reinforced concrete and steel buildings are more water- and carbon-intensive but can achieve greater efficiency through material innovations, water recovery systems, and green infrastructure. Timber buildings have the lowest water footprint due to minimal embedded and direct water use, making them the most water-efficient choice in many contexts. The total water footprint of a building project depends on its size, materials, and design efficiency. As the paper highlighted concrete-heavy projects (e.g., skyscrapers, highways) have a significantly higher water footprint than those using wood or modular prefabrication. The implementation of water recovery technologies, green infrastructure, and circular economy principles has the potential to reduce this footprint, contributing to more sustainable construction practices. In the absence of systemic reforms, the construction sector risks intensifying water scarcity and environmental degradation. Improving water efficiency in building construction is imperative to alleviate the increasing pressure on global water resources. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2026.